Organization: McGraw-Hill Product Name: AP Chang Chemistry 2019 Product Version: 1.3 Source: IMS Online Validator Profile: t1.3.0 Identifier: tcc_v1p3 Timestamp: Thursday, August 6, 2020 12:52 PM EDT Status: VALID! Conformant: true ----- VALID! ----- Resource Validation Results The document is valid. ----- VALID! ----- Schema Location Results Schema locations are valid. ----- VALID! ----- Schema Validation Results The document is valid. ----- VALID! ----- Schematron Validation Results The document is valid. Curriculum Standards: ENE-5.B.1 An external source of energy can be used to make a thermodynamically unfavorable process occur. Examples include: - 6856270D-6E79-4917-B2F5-A4AE0F58F21A SAP-3.A.5 In a metallic solid, the valence electrons from the metal atoms are considered to be delocalized and not associated with any individual atom. - 28803AB7-FF45-428C-AE67-10D3AD8B5C2A SAP-9.E.3 For titrations of weak acids/bases, it is useful to consider the point halfway to the equivalence point, that is, the half-equivalence point. At this point, there are equal concentrations of each species in the conjugate acid-base pair, for example, for a weak acid [HA] = [A⁻]. Because pH = pKₐ when the conjugate acid and base have equal concentrations, the pKₐ can be determined from the pH at the half-equivalence point in a titration. - 38396F7C-FAFA-4B41-95A4-A9955EA83B27 ENE-2.A.4 The formation of a solution may be an exothermic or endothermic process, depending on the relative strengths of intermolecular/interparticle interactions before and after the dissolution process. - 39583B78-92EA-4727-BA46-CE03939A433C ENE-2.D.6 Chemical systems change their energy through three main processes: heating/cooling, phase transitions, and chemical reactions. - 318C4720-B268-4CDD-8394-F7461A1BF0B1 SAP-4.C.1 VSEPR theory uses the Coulombic repulsion between electrons as a basis for predicting the arrangement of electron pairs around a central atom. - 6B22CCD4-0C92-41F7-87EC-3F53071DEE95 SAP-10.B.1 A buffer solution contains a large concentration of both members in a conjugate acid-base pair. The conjugate acid reacts with added base and the conjugate base reacts with added acid. These reactions are responsible for the ability of a buffer to stabilize pH. - 7144D7F2-46B3-4653-8071-31D83A94A46E 2.D Make observations or collect data from representations of laboratory setups or results, while attending to precision where appropriate. - D3C33E86-91D7-47E6-87FA-BE29F90C75AE TRA-7.C.1 Some equilibrium reactions have very large K values and proceed essentially to completion. Others have very small K values and barely proceed at all. - 1F9032D6-3E3C-462C-ABB8-62E9A9AAA436 3.C Represent visually the relationship between the structures and interactions across multiple levels or scales (e.g., particulate to macroscopic). - E03BAE7E-A9E6-4503-990E-440BD5264D68 ENE-6.A.3 For all electrochemical cells, oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode. - CB3D97A7-332F-4086-B165-1BE6FBA54B67 SPQ-5.D.1 The free energy change (ΔG°) for dissolution of a substance reflects a number of factors: the breaking of the intermolecular interactions that hold the solid together, the reorganization of the solvent around the dissolved species, and the interaction of the dissolved species with the solvent. It is possible to estimate the sign and relative magnitude of the enthalpic and entropic contributions to each of these factors. However, making predictions for the total change in free energy of dissolution can be challenging due to the cancellations among the free energies associated with the three factors cited. - 8CD9C0EA-0D8A-4495-8FE2-191E970EC29B ENE-1.A.4 Some catalysts involve covalent bonding between the catalyst and the reactant(s). An example is acid-base catalysis, in which a reactant or intermediate either gains or loses a proton. This introduces a new reaction intermediate and new elementary reactions involving that intermediate. - ACD18936-7408-4E61-90C7-4E63EBD098B3 ENE-4.B.1 The entropy change for a process can be calculated from the absolute entropies of the species involved before and after the process occurs. - 2A098C35-C865-42A6-902E-980DC51EED5E SPQ-3.B.1 Particulate representations of solutions communicate the structure and properties of solutions, by illustration of the relative concentrations of the components in the solution and drawings that show interactions among the components. - 041AFE91-5FE2-4C90-9098-444021B424FC TRA-7.B.1 Equilibrium constants can be determined from experimental measurements of the concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants and products at equilibrium. - 2D98B95D-3C50-484E-9769-BA458E25D798 TRA-2.A.1 Acid-base reactions involve transfer of one or more protons between chemical species. - E011D79A-78C6-47BB-B9EC-1515AF397E87 SPQ-5.A.3 The solubility rules (see TRA-2.A.5) can be quantitatively related to Kₛₚ, in which Kₛₚ values >1 correspond to soluble salts. - 35B81B65-885B-4037-92C2-8FF8C45ABB4D SAP-5.B.7 In large biomolecules or polymers, noncovalent interactions may occur between different molecules or between different regions of the same large biomolecule. The functionality and properties of such molecules depend strongly on the shape of the molecule, which is largely dictated by noncovalent interactions. - B407A290-2B12-4C85-A56F-8F651F88CF31 SAP-7.A.2 In a sample containing a mixture of ideal gases, the pressure exerted by each component (the partial pressure) is independent of the other components. Therefore, the total pressure of the sample is the sum of the partial pressures. - F062AA6E-0694-41C7-91E1-B50EDEFD25B0 SAP-3.A.4 The difference in electronegativity is not the only factor in determining if a bond should be designated as ionic or covalent. Generally, bonds between a metal and nonmetal are ionic, and bonds between two nonmetals are covalent. Examination of the properties of a compound is the best way to characterize the type of bonding. - 65DB4000-6FED-4265-9022-8DADA94DCD98 SAP-9.D.1 When a strong acid and a strong base are mixed, they react quantitatively in a reaction represented by the equation: H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l). The pH of the resulting solution may be determined from the concentration of excess reagent. - 62BF94FE-B6D0-4364-BEB3-F0074FBC808D SAP-1.A.2 Coulomb's law is used to calculate the force between two charged particles. - 54B9E074-A8F6-4DA3-93C1-990D65303772 SAP-4.C.2 Both Lewis diagrams and VSEPR theory must be used for predicting electronic and structural properties of many covalently bonded molecules and polyatomic ions, including the following: - 3CB229C8-BAB3-4A49-8FDD-EBA869714CF1 TRA-1.A.1 A physical change occurs when a substance undergoes a change in properties but not a change in composition. Changes in the phase of a substance (solid, liquid, gas) or formation/separation of mixtures of substances are common physical changes. - 74A1AB41-A68D-4F8E-B041-810A3038D4D1 5.F Calculate, estimate, or predict an unknown quantity from known quantities by selecting and following a logical computational pathway and attending to precision (e.g., performing dimensional analysis and attending to significant figures). - C497EF16-97A6-42F9-BA32-7486FB4681A1 TRA-3.A.1 The kinetics of a chemical reaction is defined as the rate at which an amount of reactants is converted to products per unit of time. - 36180405-1BEF-4BA0-8538-EF91DA1FB1F7 TRA-7.A.1 The reaction quotient Q [subscript c] describes the relative concentrations of reaction species at any time. For gas phase reactions, the reaction quotient may instead be written in terms of pressures as Qₚ. The reaction quotient tends toward the equilibrium constant such that at equilibrium K [subscript c] = Q [subscript c] and Kₚ = Qₚ. As examples, for the reaction aA + bB is in equilibrium with cC + dD; the equilibrium expression for (K [subscript c], Q [subscript c]) is EQN: K [subscript c] = [C]ᶜ[ D]ᵈ / [A]ᵃ [B]ᵇ and that for (Kₚ, Qₚ) is EQN: Kₚ = (P [subscript C])ᶜ(P [subscript D])ᵈ / (P [subscript A)ᵃ(P [subscript B])ᵇ. - 89A6BDE7-5759-43A5-83E7-0457861359DB TRA-3.B.3 The power of each reactant in the rate law is the order of the reaction with respect to that reactant. The sum of the powers of the reactant concentrations in the rate law is the overall order of the reaction. - 52393FA5-2FD3-451C-96B2-9A6983A6A35A TRA-3.C.5 Half-life is a critical parameter for first order reactions because the half-life is constant and related to the rate constant for the reaction by the equation: EQN: t₁/₂ = 0.693/k. - 868AA988-F5C4-409D-A311-DA1C39911393 SAP-8.C.2 In most experiments the path length and wavelength of light are held constant. In such cases, the absorbance is proportional only to the concentration of absorbing molecules or ions. - BC0644FB-C49C-40A7-97FE-96EC79610D61 TRA-4.A.2 Elementary reactions involving the simultaneous collision of three or more particles are rare. - FA859851-5FDF-403D-8ED5-2007BF361EF1 TRA-7.A.2 The reaction quotient does not include substances whose concentrations (or partial pressures) are independent of the amount, such as for solids and pure liquids. - 2B619044-D020-4492-87AD-F10FD57F2501 TRA-3.B.1 Experimental methods can be used to monitor the amounts of reactants and/or products of a reaction and to determine the rate of the reaction. - 7179B621-DF62-47E3-A219-E365D54598B9 ENE-6.B.3 ΔG° (standard Gibbs free energy change) is proportional to the negative of the cell potential for the redox reaction from which it is constructed. Thus, a cell with a positive E° involves a thermodynamically favored reaction, and a cell with a negative E° involves a thermodynamically unfavored reaction. - C0113EE7-F1B2-4833-A640-3DCD9F0178D7 TRA-4.C.2 The reaction coordinate is the axis along which the complex set of motions involved in rearranging reactants to form products can be plotted. - 45B6F2F2-D559-42E8-81D0-6BDC5AF8004B ENE-2.E.2 The energy absorbed during a phase change is equal to the energy released during a complementary phase change in the opposite direction. For example, the molar heat of condensation of a substance is equal to the negative of its molar heat of vaporization. - A4F4C736-9F48-45EA-B425-2989204A9AFE 5.C Explain the relationship between variables within an equation when one variable changes. - AF2A3F07-554A-48EB-BABD-6567DB7ACE4F TRA-3.C.3 If a reaction is second order with respect to a reactant being monitored, a plot of the reciprocal of the concentration of that reactant versus time will be linear. - 22E545CA-AE60-41B0-AB9E-0258494D6009 TRA-1.B.1 All physical and chemical processes can be represented symbolically by balanced equations. - 7D91658B-C958-4E77-A476-EA91DB79EA07 TRA-4.C.3 The energy profile gives the energy along the reaction coordinate, which typically proceeds from reactants, through a transition state, to products. The energy difference between the reactants and the transition state is the activation energy for the forward reaction. - A7A7B8D0-0773-4FED-A653-32EDF142F12C SAP-9.D.2 When a weak acid and a strong base are mixed, they react quantitatively in a reaction represented by the equation: HA(aq) + OH⁻(aq) is in equilibrium to A⁻(aq) H₂O(l). If the weak acid is in excess, then a buffer solution is formed, and the pH can be determined from the Henderson-Hasselbalch (H−H) equation (see SAP-10.C.1). If the strong base is in excess, then the pH can be determined from the moles of excess hydroxide ion and the total volume of solution. If they are equimolar, then the (slightly basic) pH can be determined from the equilibrium represented by the equation: A⁻(aq) + H₂O(l) is in equilibrium to HA(aq) + OH⁻(aq). - A46FFB1E-3B7A-43C2-9303-AD93BD297693 SAP-10.C.1 The pH of the buffer is related to the pKₐ of the acid and the concentration ratio of the conjugate acid-base pair. This relation is a consequence of the equilibrium expression associated with the dissociation of a weak acid, and is described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Adding small amounts of acid or base to a buffered solution does not significantly change the ratio of [A⁻] / [HA] and thus does not significantly change the solution pH. The change in pH on addition of acid or base to a buffered solution is therefore much less than it would have been in the absence of the buffer. - CE8269CB-A616-40B3-82ED-293B9F5D8310 ENE-1.A.1 In order for a catalyst to increase the rate of a reaction, the addition of the catalyst must increase the number of effective collisions and/or provide a reaction path with a lower activation energy relative to the original reaction coordinate. - D7C9845C-9D33-4546-93F8-11A204CE5909 SPQ-2.A.1 Some pure substances are composed of individual molecules, while others consist of atoms or ions held together in fixed proportions as described by a formula unit. - F7D8E515-C48F-4936-AD68-5E7A336F6119 SAP-9.C.1 Weak acids react with water to produce hydronium ions. However, molecules of a weak acid will only partially ionize in this way. In other words, only a small percentage of the molecules of a weak acid are ionized in a solution. Thus, the concentration of H₃O⁺ is much less than the initial concentration of the molecular acid, and the vast majority of the acid molecules remain un-ionized. - 183E4E02-A200-4C4E-ADA7-B2E8A611FC62 SAP-9.B.2 When dissolved in solution, strong bases (e.g., group I and II hydroxides) completely dissociate to produce hydroxide ions. As such, the concentration of OH⁻ in a strong base solution is equal to the initial concentration of the strong base, and thus the pOH (and pH) of the strong base solution is easily calculated. - 3FF0CD4D-ACF9-4265-A1A0-C6D1ED91290D SAP-9.B.1 Molecules of a strong acid (e.g., HCl, HBr, HI, HClO₄, H₂SO₄, and HNO₃) will completely ionize in aqueous solution to produce hydronium ions. As such, the concentration of H₃O⁺ in a strong acid solution is equal to the initial concentration of the strong acid, and thus the pH of the strong acid solution is easily calculated. - E5671DA6-62B1-4E5E-82BF-878E7D9D75E2 TRA-3.B.2 The rate law expresses the rate of a reaction as proportional to the concentration of each reactant raised to a power. - 4C2F1162-1173-4C8A-931E-11C6B20CFC9A TRA-2.B.3 When an acid or base ionizes in water, the conjugate acid-base pairs can be identified and their relative strengths compared. - 92A8C113-FE98-498E-89C2-D804C2D4FDEC SAP-8.C.1 The Beer-Lambert law relates the absorption of light by a solution to three variables according to the equation: EQN: 𝐴 = ε𝐴𝑏𝐴𝑏𝑐. The molar absorptivity ε describes how intensely a sample of molecules or ions absorbs light of a specific wavelength. The path length 𝐴𝑏𝑐𝑏 and concentration 𝐴𝑏𝑐𝑏𝑐 are proportional to the number of absorbing species. - 7B3EEDDE-3D67-4F5C-94EE-5A78A41C63FA SAP-5.B.4 In covalent network solids, the atoms are covalently bonded together into a three-dimensional network (e.g., diamond) or layers of two-dimensional networks (e.g., graphite). These are only formed from nonmetals: elemental (e.g., diamond, graphite) or binary compounds of two nonmetals (e.g., silicon dioxide and silicon carbide). Due to the strong covalent interactions, covalent solids have high melting points. Three-dimensional network solids are also rigid and hard, because the covalent bond angles are fixed. However, graphite is soft because adjacent layers can slide past each other relatively easily. - C83858DC-B649-4937-AFA7-8DD8C3A81579 ENE-3.D.1 When the products of a reaction are at a different temperature than their surroundings, they exchange energy with the surroundings to reach thermal equilibrium. Thermal energy is transferred to the surroundings from the products of an exothermic reaction. Thermal energy is transferred from the surroundings to the products of an endothermic reaction. - 22EEBA28-5725-4C8C-BFF4-868ACEB65781 TRA-4.C.1 Elementary reactions typically involve the breaking of some bonds and the forming of new ones. - B1DF6FBC-C23A-43CB-8006-F38FE0490A93 SPQ-4.B.1 Titrations may be used to determine the concentration of an analyte in solution. The titrant has a known concentration of a species that reacts specifically and quantitatively with the analyte. The equivalence point of the titration occurs when the analyte is totally consumed by the reacting species in the titrant. The equivalence point is often indicated by a change in a property (such as color) that occurs when the equivalence point is reached. This observable event is called the endpoint of the titration. - 000EE551-ABC1-4DDD-979F-EA16BC0F4B66 4.D Explain the degree to which a model or representation describes the connection between particulate-level properties and macroscopic properties. - C3650D15-65E6-4F2F-915F-3B86263F04C9 TRA-2.C.1 Balanced chemical equations for redox reactions can be constructed from half-reactions. - D2EF29D8-45ED-420C-84B7-EDF8B2650F0F SPQ-4.A.3 Stoichiometric calculations can be combined with the ideal gas law and calculations involving molarity to quantitatively study gases and solutions. - 710F41D3-0DDA-4D82-BD1F-2720D6096D5A ENE-1.A.5 In surface catalysis, a reactant or intermediate binds to, or forms a covalent bond with, the surface. This introduces elementary reactions involving these new bound reaction intermediate(s). - 8E0B0E6E-099E-41AA-9C4F-81A8913F893D SAP-4.C.4 Bond formation is associated with overlap between atomic orbitals. In multiple bonds, such overlap leads to the formation of both sigma and pi bonds. The overlap is stronger in sigma than pi bonds, which is reflected in sigma bonds having greater bond energy than pi bonds. The presence of a pi bond also prevents the rotation of the bond and leads to structural isomers. - 79E40A47-287A-43A8-B9A3-CCABA9EDF56F TRA-3.A.2 The rates of change of reactant and product concentrations are determined by the stoichiometry in the balanced chemical equation. - 8ABF6FC3-00E2-44D1-8DBD-FA479F61B5EC 5.E Determine a balanced chemical equation for a given chemical phenomenon. - F3B7FBE1-22F8-4E04-92E2-7706966A8039 SAP-1.B.1 The energies of the electrons in a given shell can be measured experimentally with photoelectron spectroscopy (PES). The position of each peak in the PES spectrum is related to the energy required to remove an electron from the corresponding subshell, and the height of each peak is (ideally) proportional to the number of electrons in that subshell. - CD10C2AF-BBEC-499E-83A8-FF8086BBC601 ENE-4.C.4 In some cases, it is necessary to consider both enthalpy and entropy to determine if a process will be thermodynamically favored. The freezing of water and the dissolution of sodium nitrate are examples of such phenomena. - 2D5CF235-D2B2-4B7A-90F7-DBC5F2D56D38 SAP-3.D.1 Metallic bonding can be represented as an array of positive metal ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons (i.e., a "sea of electrons"). - C89F1BA6-F846-41F4-BF2B-E8D1405D06C1 TRA-4.B.2 In most reactions, only a small fraction of the collisions leads to a reaction. Successful collisions have both sufficient energy to overcome energy barriers and orientations that allow the bonds to rearrange in the required manner. - D09967CB-869F-44F7-8EA1-6A8EF9D4126E TRA-5.A.2 The elementary steps when combined should align with the overall balanced equation of a chemical reaction. - CFCE0F2B-A589-4103-9FB1-FC9FB6431F5F SAP-6.A.1 Solids can be crystalline, where the particles are arranged in a regular three-dimensional structure, or they can be amorphous, where the particles do not have a regular, orderly arrangement. In both cases, the motion of the individual particles is limited, and the particles do not undergo overall translation with respect to each other. The structure of the solid is influenced by interparticle interactions and the ability of the particles to pack together. - 8AC7EAB4-D23C-4CA6-BCDA-4A2A99A6A8BF 6.D Provide reasoning to justify a claim using chemical principles or laws, or using mathematical justification. - BAB20B5C-B4B5-4D59-AB74-80CA247B579B ENE-6.B.2 The standard cell potential of electrochemical cells can be calculated by identifying the oxidation and reduction half-reactions and their respective standard reduction potentials. - 72A96A9B-E122-4BE1-936E-071092DA72E3 ENE-5.A.1 The phrase "thermodynamically favored" (ΔG° < 0) means that the products are favored at equilibrium (K > 1). - 0E08E45B-A2A5-40AB-83A4-C1289EED16CE TRA-1.C.1 Balanced chemical equations in their various forms can be translated into symbolic particulate representations. - A0CCB258-510C-4598-BA4C-781B54918925 SAP-9.D.4 When a weak acid and a weak base are mixed, they will react to an equilibrium state whose reaction may be represented by the equation: HA(aq) + B(aq) is in equilibrium to A⁻(aq) + HB⁺(aq). - 87BA26A7-D3C5-49FB-81BB-9CDE250B38CD ENE-6.D.1 Faraday's laws can be used to determine the stoichiometry of the redox reaction occurring in an electrochemical cell with respect to the following: - 25BED79C-FA63-4FB8-BA07-793D7FDF31A0 3.A Represent chemical phenomena using appropriate graphing techniques, including correct scale and units. - 62AF9136-40D1-443F-91B8-578129F4AF4E SAP-5.B.5 Molecular solids are composed of distinct, individual units of covalently-bonded molecules attracted to each other through relatively weak intermolecular forces. Molecular solids generally have a low melting point because of the relatively weak intermolecular forces present between the molecules. They do not conduct electricity because their valence electrons are tightly held within the covalent bonds and the lone pairs of each constituent molecule. Molecular solids are sometimes composed of very large molecules or polymers. - 3D0F3A3B-B226-4BD3-8E19-131AD0FA4665 SPQ-2.A.3 The chemical formula that lists the lowest whole number ratio of atoms of the elements in a compound is the empirical formula. - 329A71DA-D38A-4292-91E7-5AB199B0E6FB SAP-1.A.1 The atom is composed of negatively charged electrons and a positively charged nucleus that is made of protons and neutrons. - 5DC94113-E0D2-4A63-9D8C-D4AB82EAE3C1 SAP-5.A.2 The dipole moment of a polar molecule leads to additional interactions with other chemical species. - 04BECC2D-DED7-4602-9FFA-85E0DD8805B0 6.A Make a scientific claim. - DE857ED2-BD17-4027-A636-3BD4A7075B57 SAP-9.A.4 The value of K [subscript w] is temperature dependent, so the pH of pure, neutral water will deviate from 7.0 at temperatures other than 25°C. - 53806CE0-6E2C-4099-AA9F-59BA411698AB SAP-6.A.4 In the gas phase, the particles are in constant motion. Their frequencies of collision and the average spacing between them are dependent on temperature, pressure, and volume. Because of this constant motion, and minimal effects of forces between particles, a gas has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. - 1B0C86A9-09E1-494D-BE5C-89462FA32A00 TRA-8.A.2 Le Châtelier's principle can be used to predict the effect that a stress will have on experimentally measurable properties such as pH, temperature, and color of a solution. - 08FBB5ED-66C1-43A3-95D0-7023364D6810 SAP-10.D.2 When a buffer has more conjugate acid than base, it has a greater buffer capacity for addition of added base than acid. When a buffer has more conjugate base than acid, it has a greater buffer capacity for addition of added acid than base. - 3FE00D10-26F5-4E08-BB32-1CCD6F4D1E93 SAP-7.A.3 Graphical representations of the relationships between P, V, T, and n are useful to describe gas behavior. - 2EBE6117-8416-4B5E-BCDE-AB386689218F SPQ-3.A.2 Solution composition can be expressed in a variety of ways; molarity is the most common method used in the laboratory. - 1DE97D85-2115-44C5-A248-04D062B490C9 SAP-9.A.3 In pure water, pH = pOH is called a neutral solution. At 25°C, pK [subscript w] = 14.0 and thus pH = pOH = 7.0. - 9F1B52A4-3D80-4992-B6C2-67CD8FC8D944 TRA-2.A.5 Precipitation reactions frequently involve mixing ions in aqueous solution to produce an insoluble or sparingly soluble ionic compound. All sodium, potassium, ammonium, and nitrate salts are soluble in water. - F440B4AF-5AA6-485F-9A3B-86A8F8BDA239 ENE-2.A.2 Energy changes in a system can be described as endothermic and exothermic processes such as the heating or cooling of a substance, phase changes, or chemical transformations. - 1B3D19D9-1753-4B67-B4A8-C57117EA7F95 ENE-6.C.1 In a real system under nonstandard conditions, the cell potential will vary depending on the concentrations of the active species. The cell potential is a driving force toward equilibrium; the farther the reaction is from equilibrium, the greater the magnitude of the cell potential. - D91CF09C-BFCD-49DC-8F3B-D68F541556D8 SAP-9.A.2 Water autoionizes with an equilibrium constant K [subscript w]. - 5F804A0B-2D71-4452-97BC-3A03DA623D06 SAP-8.B.2 The wavelength of the electromagnetic wave is related to its frequency and the speed of light by the equation: EQN: 34𝑐 = λ34𝑐𝑣. The energy of a photon is related to the frequency of the electromagnetic wave through Planck's equation (34𝑐𝑣𝐸 = ℎ34𝑐𝑣𝐸𝑣). - 1CA76E6F-933B-4430-9B1A-94FB84D4C5F3 SPQ-5.B.1 The solubility of a salt is reduced when it is dissolved into a solution that already contains one of the ions present in the salt. The impact of this "common-ion effect" on solubility can be understood qualitatively using Le Châtelier's principle or calculated from the Kₛₚ for the dissolution process. - C925145B-EE1D-4D35-8CE9-9630C7A1784A TRA-8.B.1 A disturbance to a system at equilibrium causes Q to differ from K, thereby taking the system out of equilibrium. The system responds by bringing Q back into agreement with K, thereby establishing a new equilibrium state. - 98CBD7CB-27ED-40CA-BC15-8407A8A78A12 SAP-10.A.1 The protonation state of an acid or base (i.e., the relative concentrations of HA and A⁻) can be predicted by comparing the pH of a solution to the pKₐ of the acid in that solution. When solution pH < acid pKₐ, the acid form has a higher concentration than the base form. When solution pH > acid pKₐ, the base form has a higher concentration than the acid form. - 5DF68CE2-EFCF-4965-976F-033A16025D3A ENE-4.A.1 Entropy increases when matter becomes more dispersed. For example, the phase change from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas results in a dispersal of matter as the individual particles become freer to move and generally occupy a larger volume. Similarly, for a gas, the entropy increases when there is an increase in volume (at constant temperature), and the gas molecules are able to move within a larger space. For reactions involving gas-phase reactants or products, the entropy generally increases when the total number of moles of gas-phase products is greater than the total number of moles of gas-phase reactants. - 07EFE821-CEE3-4F60-A971-CF4E760063D5 6.C Support a claim with evidence from representations or models at the particulate level, such as the structure of atoms and/or molecules. - 41A6EA51-1857-4523-9D97-82663098800F 5.A Identify quantities needed to solve a problem from given information (e.g., text, mathematical expressions, graphs, or tables). - 51C2763E-0B48-41A2-A778-B066DD28D3B3 TRA-7.F.1 Particulate representations can be used to describe the relative numbers of reactant and product particles present prior to and at equilibrium, and the value of the equilibrium constant. - C7AA8D52-13B4-4A4B-8FE2-F09FC758D07A SAP-3.D.3 Substitutional alloys form between atoms of comparable radius, where one atom substitutes for the other in the lattice. (In certain brass alloys, other elements, usually zinc, substitute for copper.) - E886E1AC-3012-44E8-B1C3-10129E8CAB07 ENE-6.C.4 Algorithmic calculations using the Nernst equation are insufficient to demonstrate an understanding of electrochemical cells under nonstandard conditions. However, students should qualitatively understand the effects of concentration on cell potential and use conceptual reasoning, including the qualitative use of the Nernst equation: EQN: E = E° − (RT/nF) ln Q to solve problems. - A41BFC13-D599-4C1F-B49D-F051C6CC8A48 SPQ-2.B.1 While pure substances contain molecules or formula units of a single type, mixtures contain molecules or formula units of two or more types, whose relative proportions can vary. - D332BD90-D584-4919-A4FE-E17A004ACA56 SAP-4.B.1 In cases where more than one equivalent Lewis structure can be constructed, resonance must be included as a refinement to the Lewis structure. In many such cases, this refinement is needed to provide qualitatively accurate predictions of molecular structure and properties. - 8E9472FA-F534-44F4-80A0-BEBADDE85216 ENE-4.C.5 Knowing the values of ΔH° and ΔS° for a process at a given temperature allows ΔG° to be calculated directly. - 17BD583F-503D-4FDD-B7F3-422630357F9C ENE-2.C.3 Eventually, thermal equilibrium is reached as the particles continue to collide. At thermal equilibrium, the average kinetic energy of both bodies is the same, and hence, their temperatures are the same. - 058FF8E2-612D-45A7-B135-B08767111851 TRA-7.E.1 The concentrations or partial pressures of species at equilibrium can be predicted given the balanced reaction, initial concentrations, and the appropriate K. - 7E3D78C9-E73D-4A62-B97E-626DC9C82BF7 ENE-2.D.4 Heating a system increases the energy of the system, while cooling a system decreases the energy of the system. - 11E08D41-FBB7-41B3-A3CB-11F0B6A3AB7D SAP-7.A.1 The macroscopic properties of ideal gases are related through the ideal gas law: EQN: PV = nRT. - CB660CD7-DC43-45A8-A58F-903219312D76 SPQ-1.A.1 One cannot count particles directly while performing laboratory work. Thus, there must be a connection between the masses of substances reacting and the actual number of particles undergoing chemical changes. - 2215FD8F-9BD7-4414-870E-5C98EE46E5F8 ENE-1.A.3 Some catalysts accelerate a reaction by binding to the reactant(s). The reactants are either oriented more favorably or react with lower activation energy. There is often a new reaction intermediate in which the catalyst is bound to the reactant(s). Many enzymes function in this manner. - D263C6FB-EF86-42C6-93B1-3838C7988C81 SAP-5.A.5 In large biomolecules, noncovalent interactions may occur between different molecules or between different regions of the same large biomolecule. - 9680DE18-1E2C-409E-BA61-A1C602B2209E 3.B Represent chemical substances or phenomena with appropriate diagrams or models (e.g., electron configuration). - FFF182F7-FAB5-4CA2-8C3C-EDFA4EC3398E ENE-1.A.2 In a reaction mechanism containing a catalyst, the net concentration of the catalyst is constant. However, the catalyst will frequently be consumed in the rate-determining step of the reaction, only to be regenerated in a subsequent step in the mechanism. - CABBE8BC-D6D6-4BE9-802B-3ABFC00CB284 SAP-3.B.3 Coulomb's law can be used to understand the strength of interactions between cations and anions. - 909ABED9-5440-4FA0-9628-7A7D50D72156 SAP-4.B.3 As with any model, there are limitations to the use of the Lewis structure model, particularly in cases with an odd number of valence electrons. - 54CFC3FB-FDEB-4F9C-BC85-0A270ED8C45B SAP-5.A.3 The relative strength and orientation dependence of dipole-dipole and ion-dipole forces can be understood qualitatively by considering the sign of the partial charges responsible for the molecular dipole moment, and how these partial charges interact with an ion or with an adjacent dipole. - 1C4A94B2-FE3B-4077-B082-95F90539A883 TRA-3.C.6 Radioactive decay processes provide an important illustration of first order kinetics. - D33608A6-52E1-43F8-9A7F-1E65F695FE9A SAP-5.B.1 Many properties of liquids and solids are determined by the strengths and types of intermolecular forces present. Because intermolecular interactions are broken when a substance vaporizes, the vapor pressure and boiling point are directly related to the strength of those interactions. Melting points also tend to correlate with interaction strength, but because the interactions are only rearranged, in melting, the relations can be more subtle. - CF959660-F936-4508-938A-B669E719B59C SAP-1.A.4 The relative energy required to remove an electron from different subshells of an atom or ion or from the same subshell in different atoms or ions (ionization energy) can be estimated through a qualitative application of Coulomb's law. This energy is related to the distance from the nucleus and the effective (shield) charge of the nucleus. - 3CF0206C-BC23-4A6D-932D-38375EF8EF20 SPQ-5.C.1 The solubility of a salt is pH sensitive when one of the constituent ions is a weak acid or base. These effects can be understood qualitatively using Le Châtelier's principle. - 33D1B5A7-30A3-45F8-81DD-6C71051B5C89 SAP-8.A.1 Differences in absorption or emission of photons in different spectral regions are related to the different types of molecular motion or electronic transition: - 9717A7C7-21F7-41DF-9654-7C78936B46E7 4.C Explain the connection between particulate-level and macroscopic properties of a substance using models and representations. - E53A5994-1358-4211-83A7-4361A4C80368 TRA-5.C.1 If the first elementary reaction is not rate limiting, approximations (such as steady state) must be made to determine a rate law expression. - 8F36E932-6992-4306-ADDC-D83804B89BC1 TRA-6.A.1 Many observable processes are reversible. Examples include evaporation and condensation of water, absorption and desorption of a gas, or dissolution and precipitation of a salt. Some important reversible chemical processes include the transfer of protons in acid-base reactions and the transfer of electrons in redox reactions. - 4AA29E0B-F623-4C84-AA14-BC920FCAB93D ENE-2.B.1 A physical or chemical process can be described with an energy diagram that shows the endothermic or exothermic nature of that process. - 1AABD55B-2DC0-467F-8147-1D6298D03BB4 ENE-6.A.1 Each component of an electrochemical cell (electrodes, solutions in the half-cells, salt bridge, voltage/current measuring device) plays a specific role in the overall functioning of the cell. The operational characteristics of the cell (galvanic vs. electrolytic, direction of electron flow, reactions occurring in each half-cell, change in electrode mass, evolution of a gas at an electrode, ion flow through the salt bridge) can be described at both the macroscopic and particulate levels. - 2D4DA800-3DAA-4C8A-87A5-49E5DDF088E2 ENE-3.C.1 Although the concept of "state function" is not required for the course, two principles of Hess's law should be understood. First, when a reaction is reversed, the enthalpy change stays constant in magnitude but becomes reversed in mathematical sign. Second, when two (or more) reactions are added to obtain an overall reaction, the individual enthalpy changes of each reaction are added to obtain the net enthalpy of the overall reaction. - 0AFA5BA1-A9C3-44A2-9B1B-6B639DB482BD SAP-7.B.3 The Kelvin temperature of a sample of matter is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles in the sample. - 80C53F36-8636-45A1-82A4-EACDA82594E5 SAP-9.C.4 A solution of a weak base involves equilibrium between an un-ionized base and its conjugate acid. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is Kb, often reported as pKb. The pH of a weak base solution can be determined from the initial base concentration and the pKb. - 5E335C8A-D634-4E24-B02A-63AFEC063E3F SAP-7.C.1 The ideal gas law does not explain the actual behavior of real gases. Deviations from the ideal gas law may result from interparticle attractions among gas molecules, particularly at conditions that are close to those resulting in condensation. Deviations may also arise from particle volumes, particularly at extremely high pressures. - 98162BE7-92AD-4DA7-812A-2F582689B715 SAP-3.D.2 Interstitial alloys form between atoms of different radii, where the smaller atoms fill the interstitial spaces between the larger atoms (e.g., with steel in which carbon occupies the interstices in iron). - 0A9F3190-66A9-46EF-8FC7-175A2F1F2C51 6.F Explain the connection between experimental results and chemical concepts, processes, or theories. - 59C5429C-1D52-4129-AA8A-E9DDAD919FEC ENE-5.B.2 A desired product can be formed by coupling a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction that produces that product to a favorable reaction (e.g., the conversion of ATP to ADP in biological systems). In the coupled system, the individual reactions share one or more common intermediates. The sum of the individual reactions produces an overall reaction that achieves the desired outcome and has ΔG° < 0. - 7CA0A876-618C-4749-8CA0-328D9DC2D5F4 ENE-4.D.2 Processes that are thermodynamically favored, but do not proceed at a measurable rate, are under "kinetic control." High activation energy is a common reason for a process to be under kinetic control. The fact that a process does not proceed at a noticeable rate does not mean that the chemical system is at equilibrium. If a process is known to be thermodynamically favored, and yet does not occur at a measurable rate, it is reasonable to conclude that the process is under kinetic control. - 7914A89A-97DA-4E42-9FFC-1712A4582867 5.D Identify information presented graphically to solve a problem. - 2C29D03C-9FD8-447E-946F-2569680670A5 SAP-9.A.1 The concentrations of hydronium ion and hydroxide ion are often reported as pH and pOH, respectively. - D733C770-AFF9-46D7-9C9C-1B07F49FD8E3 1.A Describe the components of and quantitative information from models and representations that illustrate particulate-level properties only. - 3DCED28A-F21E-4A4E-AE37-DDA2C4645737 ENE-3.B.1 Tables of standard enthalpies of formation can be used to calculate the standard enthalpies of reactions. - 5A50ED03-BDE4-47D2-A123-292D64679CB5 ENE-2.D.3 The transfer of a given amount of thermal energy will not produce the same temperature change in equal masses of matter with differing specific heat capacities. - 58B87441-BB54-4F6F-B32E-E583CBECEC59 2.F Explain how modifications to an experimental procedure will alter results. - 46670444-5CF5-4184-9F66-A02B8B0C8CE3 ENE-4.C.1 The Gibbs free energy change for a chemical process in which all the reactants and products are present in a standard state (as pure substances, as solutions of 1.0 M concentration, or as gases at a pressure of 1.0 atm (or 1.0 bar)) is given the symbol ΔG°. - 3E5C3B16-86A2-4D40-B10A-CB5ECDA9F64F ENE-4.D.1 Many processes that are thermodynamically favored do not occur to any measurable extent, or they occur at extremely slow rates. - 7CC92020-14AF-46EB-9DBC-A7876F21EF33 SAP-10.A.2 Acid-base indicators are substances that exhibit different properties (such as color) in their protonated versus deprotonated state, making that property respond to the pH of a solution. - 19B38011-C5FE-49A6-AF22-945205E05E40 SPQ-1.A.3 Expressing the mass of an individual atom or molecule in atomic mass units (amu) is useful because the average mass in amu of one particle (atom or molecule) or formula unit of a substance will always be numerically equal to the molar mass of that substance in grams. Thus, there is a quantitative connection between the mass of a substance and the number of particles that the substance contains. - 05F7200A-02D1-47FF-9917-BEF28070B275 TRA-2.A.2 Oxidation-reduction reactions involve transfer of one or more electrons between chemical species, as indicated by changes in oxidation numbers of the involved species. Combustion is an important subclass of oxidation-reduction reactions, in which a species reacts with oxygen gas. In the case of hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and water are products of complete combustion. - 0CF774D9-C730-46A5-A4D9-918E75C7B4DD ENE-6.A.2 Galvanic, sometimes called voltaic, cells involve a thermodynamically favored reaction, whereas electrolytic cells involve a thermodynamically unfavored reaction. Visual representations of galvanic and electrolytic cells are tools of analysis to identify where half-reactions occur and in what direction current flows. - 9B309CCF-F086-41FF-B706-582B69B35091 SAP-3.B.1 A graph of potential energy versus the distance between atoms is a useful representation for describing the interactions between atoms. Such graphs illustrate both the equilibrium bond length (the separation between atoms at which the potential energy is lowest) and the bond energy (the energy required to separate the atoms). - AF8953CD-96B0-4DA0-96C6-64B9917549D6 ENE-2.E.1 Energy must be transferred to a system to cause a substance to melt (or boil). The energy of the system therefore increases as the system undergoes a solid-to-liquid (or liquid-to-gas) phase transition. Likewise, a system releases energy when it freezes (or condenses). The energy of the system decreases as the system undergoes a liquid-to-solid (or gas-to-liquid) phase transition. The temperature of a pure substance remains constant during a phase change. - 447D5E41-1100-4AEE-AC4A-915222CDB582 SAP-9.E.2 At the equivalence point, the number of moles of titrant added is equal to the number of moles of analyte originally present. This relationship can be used to obtain the concentration of the analyte. This is the case for titrations of strong acids/bases and weak acids/bases. - A6C101F1-F66B-4B68-B90F-0D4953CF12FE SAP-10.D.1 Increasing the concentration of the buffer components (while keeping the ratio of these concentrations constant) keeps the pH of the buffer the same but increases the capacity of the buffer to neutralize added acid or base. - 5238BB98-3A1E-4FAB-97DD-2F62D18A9D7B TRA-6.A.4 Graphs of concentration, partial pressure, or rate of reaction versus time for simple chemical reactions can be used to understand the establishment of chemical equilibrium. - 6A2AF2E2-1124-4561-9D58-7DF939E4CF8E ENE-2.A.1 Temperature changes in a system indicate energy changes. - BF081EAE-8936-4A1B-8E78-18A6B37626ED SPQ-2.A.2 According to the law of definite proportions, the ratio of the masses of the constituent elements in any pure sample of that compound is always the same. - 98CF8E33-8DA1-422A-B972-D65F4D62EA5D ENE-2.D.5 The specific heat capacity of a substance and the molar heat capacity are both used in energy calculations. - 0E254B56-4F9A-4529-9E30-A7344B968D59 SAP-1.A.3 In atoms and ions, the electrons can be thought of as being in "shells (energy levels)" and "subshells (sublevels)," as described by the electron configuration. Inner electrons are called core electrons, and outer electrons are called valence electrons. The electron configuration is explained by quantum mechanics, as delineated in the Aufbau principle and exemplified in the periodic table of the elements. - AF3743FB-1FBE-4C15-8A3D-EE5602A3FA03 TRA-3.A.3 The rate of a reaction is influenced by reactant concentrations, temperature, surface area, catalysts, and other environmental factors. - 236CE1DF-15F1-4FE3-AAF3-2DD0C22FC45D TRA-3.B.5 Comparing initial rates of a reaction is a method to determine the order with respect to each reactant. - D5845641-07B4-42D1-9946-3A1B5FCF1AEC SAP-9.E.4 For polyprotic acids, titration curves can be used to determine the number of acidic protons. In doing so, the major species present at any point along the curve can be identified, along with the pKₐ associated with each proton in a weak polyprotic acid. - 177C753D-2623-4E05-8660-08F200541201 ENE-2.C.2 Collisions between particles in thermal contact can result in the transfer of energy. This process is called "heat transfer," "heat exchange," or "transfer of energy as heat." - 9687CE15-9642-4743-864A-22164A882AAB SPQ-4.A.2 Coefficients of balanced chemical equations contain information regarding the proportionality of the amounts of substances involved in the reaction. These values can be used in chemical calculations involving the mole concept. - 82BADA1D-8630-4AC4-8B97-0BB11F4C7DFD SAP-9.C.2 A solution of a weak acid involves equilibrium between an un-ionized acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is Kₐ, often reported as pKₐ. The pH of a weak acid solution can be determined from the initial acid concentration and the pKₐ. - B4D03231-2E59-4B07-AC02-307FBFEBF413 SAP-2.A.1 The organization of the periodic table is based on the recurring properties of the elements and explained by the pattern of electron configurations and the presence of completely or partially filled shells (and subshells) of electrons in atoms. - FEB9B5FE-29F2-402F-8ECB-9EAB4804EE78 SAP-9.C.3 Weak bases react with water to produce hydroxide ions in solution. However, ordinarily just a small percentage of the molecules of a weak base in solution will ionize in this way. Thus, the concentration of OH⁻ in the solution does not equal the initial concentration of the base, and the vast majority of the base molecules remain un-ionized. - 92F0C9B4-B4BA-4B16-B545-1AE5E2AD79B5 SPQ-3.C.1 The components of a liquid solution cannot be separated by filtration. They can, however, be separated using processes that take advantage of differences in the intermolecular interactions of the components. - E1CCBD41-93AD-46FD-A198-C69E5D846251 TRA-2.A.4 Oxidation numbers may be assigned to each of the atoms in the reactants and products; this is often an effective way to identify the oxidized and reduced species in a redox reaction. - 1EC64E20-2BF7-4B59-B5BB-DF13DB16436B SAP-9.F.1 The protons on a molecule that will participate in acid-base reactions, and the relative strength of these protons, can be inferred from the molecular structure. - 2E550D91-8C74-47CC-822B-2EEAE5FA045F SAP-2.A.3 The periodicity (in SAP-2.A.2) is useful to predict/estimate values of properties in the absence of data. - 8CEBBD08-7A83-4E3D-82B8-CDFAB525FEEB SAP-7.B.1 The kinetic molecular theory (KMT) relates the macroscopic properties of gases to motions of the particles in the gas. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution describes the distribution of the kinetic energies of particles at a given temperature. - 6D1636A9-3909-40DB-8F51-4092D83E3F2C TRA-7.D.2 When the stoichiometric coefficients of a reaction are multiplied by a factor c, K is raised to the power c. - 1E95250E-69DF-4FCF-B429-FFC57D905A62 SAP-3.A.3 Valence electrons shared between atoms of unequal electronegativity constitute a polar covalent bond. - 110FF8D3-3B33-4E95-BA13-C55FFCA43600 ENE-2.D.2 The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved in chemical and physical processes. - 2BB52002-C394-4F9A-813E-38D2C9A798CF TRA-8.B.2 Some stresses, such as changes in concentration, cause a change in Q only. A change in temperature causes a change in K. In either case, the concentrations or partial pressures of species redistribute to bring Q and K back into equality. - D94399F2-0619-4DBA-A321-0BEA5022AFB2 SAP-6.A.2 The constituent particles in liquids are in close contact with each other, and they are continually moving and colliding. The arrangement and movement of particles are influenced by the nature and strength of the forces (e.g., polarity, hydrogen bonding, and temperature) between the particles. - BE91C5E1-3E9F-47FD-A459-DC3D71E005FE 2.C Identify experimental procedures that are aligned to a scientific question (which may include a sketch of a lab setup). - 1F197B46-505A-49B3-8C91-3A5C48568A9A ENE-4.C.3 The standard Gibbs free energy change for a physical or chemical process may also be determined from the standard Gibbs free energy of formation of the reactants and products. - D2672553-5428-45FC-AA3A-709AFD93AC2B SPQ-1.A.2 Avogadro's number (N [subscript A] = 6.022 × 10²³ mol⁻¹) provides the connection between the number of moles in a pure sample of a substance and the number of constituent particles (or formula units) of that substance. - 998E246C-79C9-42C0-A179-5CFB6B93C152 TRA-4.B.1 For an elementary reaction to successfully produce products, reactants must successfully collide to initiate bond-breaking and bond-making events. - B7AB1AE2-F836-4D2A-8FF3-2445CEFD38B0 SAP-3.C.1 The cations and anions in an ionic crystal are arranged in a systematic, periodic 3-D array that maximizes the attractive forces among cations and anions while minimizing the repulsive forces. - F5CC8A14-6CAE-47E6-BA6A-F3E24B18CA05 SAP-4.B.2 The octet rule and formal charge can be used as criteria for determining which of several possible valid Lewis diagrams provides the best model for predicting molecular structure and properties. - B9921FB1-7C14-44EE-B71C-2412C464C40F SAP-3.A.1 Electronegativity values for the representative elements increase going from left to right across a period and decrease going down a group. These trends can be understood qualitatively through the electronic structure of the atoms, the shell model, and Coulomb's law. - 683CEB0F-34AA-4DFC-A611-6B4D45E807F1 6.G Explain how potential sources of experimental error may affect the experimental results. - 2E455BC6-8AA7-455C-97FB-608C03B9F5B7 SAP-5.A.4 Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of intermolecular interaction that exists when hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to the highly electronegative atoms (N, O, and F) are attracted to the negative end of a dipole formed by the electronegative atom (N, O, and F) in a different molecule, or a different part of the same molecule. - 23B74ACE-0113-45B0-9BDD-3859C1BD57E5 2.A Identify a testable scientific question based on an observation, data, or a model. - 91D77EF6-6FD6-4EB8-8C9F-0FC4DED15B4E SAP-9.D.3 When a weak base and a strong acid are mixed, they will react quantitatively in a reaction represented by the equation: B(aq) + H₃O⁺(aq) is in equilibrium to HB⁺(aq) + H₂O(l). If the weak base is in excess, then a buffer solution is formed, and the pH can be determined from the H−H equation. If the strong acid is in excess, then the pH can be determined from the moles of excess hydronium ion and the total volume of solution. If they are equimolar, then the (slightly acidic) pH can be determined from the equilibrium represented by the equation: HB⁺(aq) + H₂O(l) is in equilibrium to B(aq) + H₃O⁺(aq). - D3775785-9B9E-43D1-A90F-C9518B7338D2 SAP-8.B.1 When a photon is absorbed (or emitted) by an atom or molecule, the energy of the species is increased (or decreased) by an amount equal to the energy of the photon. - C0E449C6-1772-41EB-8061-B3DFE3D56F19 TRA-5.A.1 A reaction mechanism consists of a series of elementary reactions, or steps, that occur in sequence. The components may include reactants, intermediates, products, and catalysts. - C250C782-133F-4ED6-9F06-872B503B27BF TRA-1.B.2 Chemical equations represent chemical changes. These changes are the result of a rearrangement of atoms into new combinations; thus, any representation of a chemical change must contain equal numbers of atoms of every element before and after the change occurred. Equations thus demonstrate that mass is conserved in chemical reactions. - 08D4DB1C-BE5A-44B2-8068-CF35561D2C3E SPQ-1.B.1 The mass spectrum of a sample containing a single element can be used to determine the identity of the isotopes of that element and the relative abundance of each isotope in nature. - 6F34C6E2-62C8-4244-A305-5BC8B2067D60 SAP-6.A.3 The solid and liquid phases for a particular substance typically have similar molar volume because, in both phases, the constituent particles are in close contact at all times. - EEF6BF4C-7D5C-441C-B91A-7C646BD4710E SPQ-2.B.2 Elemental analysis can be used to determine the relative numbers of atoms in a substance and to determine its purity. - F42D30C4-83C2-4A87-BD08-043638960160 TRA-1.A.2 A chemical change occurs when substances are transformed into new substances, typically with different compositions. Production of heat or light, formation of a gas, formation of a precipitate, and/or color change provide possible evidence that a chemical change has occurred. - 3A4D722F-31CF-4861-AECD-A82EE5DCFD53 SAP-5.A.1 London dispersion forces are a result of the Coulombic interactions between temporary, fluctuating dipoles. London dispersion forces are often the strongest net intermolecular force between large molecules. - CD8DC498-AA3C-465D-AE3F-040C2F2A0F7B SAP-5.B.6 Metallic solids are good conductors of electricity and heat, due to the presence of free valence electrons. They also tend to be malleable and ductile, due to the ease with which the metal cores can rearrange their structure. In an interstitial alloy, interstitial atoms tend to make the lattice more rigid, decreasing malleability and ductility. Alloys typically retain a sea of mobile electrons and so remain conducting. - FA1DEDC4-5757-4DAE-A500-7BC83DD26ACB 5.B Identify an appropriate theory, definition, or mathematical relationship to solve a problem. - D190DDEA-93D9-4572-8F05-95610FD18613 ENE-2.F.1 The enthalpy change of a reaction gives the amount of heat energy released (for negative values) or absorbed (for positive values) by a chemical reaction at constant pressure. - B3AC9FFD-45F9-4B7E-961F-67FF14FC7DBE TRA-3.C.1 The order of a reaction can be inferred from a graph of concentration of reactant versus time. - 9D886C1F-7CBE-47A0-A968-4AF6198FF819 TRA-3.C.2 If a reaction is first order with respect to a reactant being monitored, a plot of the natural log (ln) of the reactant concentration as a function of time will be linear. - 44EE3FEC-68AC-426B-A419-D9613E352FE3 TRA-5.A.3 A reaction intermediate is produced by some elementary steps and consumed by others, such that it is present only while a reaction is occurring. - 09B91FB8-D753-4521-8CDF-EC9B95F44C3F SAP-4.C.3 The terms "hybridization" and "hybrid atomic orbital" are used to describe the arrangement of electrons around a central atom. When the central atom is sp hybridized, its ideal bond angles are 180°; for sp² hybridized atoms the bond angles are 120°; and for sp³ hybridized atoms the bond angles are 109.5°. - C24D07BD-F8FD-462F-A39F-4457CDDE8041 ENE-2.C.1 The particles in a warmer body have a greater average kinetic energy than those in a cooler body. - 7F541355-E615-4643-A6C6-55A56D0A8A7C ENE-4.C.6 In general, the temperature conditions for a process to be thermodynamically favored (ΔG° < 0) can be predicted from the signs of ΔH° and ΔS° as shown in the table below: [Cannot reproduce Graphic] In cases where ΔH° < 0 and ΔS° > 0, no calculation of ΔG° is necessary to determine that the process is thermodynamically favored (ΔG° < 0). In cases where ΔH° > 0 and ΔS° < 0 no calculation of ΔG° is necessary to determine that the process is thermodynamically unfavored (ΔG° > 0). - 07565380-DE58-4AE7-A73E-E5AA097DAB16 TRA-5.A.4 Experimental detection of a reaction intermediate is a common way to build evidence in support of one reaction mechanism over an alternative mechanism. - 29645744-EA38-44DF-A0AA-EF68B699A37C SPQ-3.A.1 Solutions, also sometimes called homogeneous mixtures, can be solids, liquids, or gases. In a solution, the macroscopic properties do not vary throughout the sample. In a heterogeneous mixture, the macroscopic properties depend on location in the mixture. - 98B67DBC-A545-4A83-9A2C-F1442C80AD53 SAP-7.B.2 All the particles in a sample of matter are in continuous, random motion. The average kinetic energy of a particle is related to its average velocity by the equation: EQN: KE = ½ mv². - ED56802F-5760-49D6-AF03-9AD1B6CB9F17 ENE-2.D.1 The heating of a cool body by a warmer body is an important form of energy transfer between two systems. The amount of heat transferred between two bodies may be quantified by the heat transfer equation: EQN: 34𝑞 = 34𝑞𝑚34𝑞𝑚𝑐Δ34𝑞𝑚𝑐𝑇. Calorimetry experiments are used to measure the transfer of heat. - 434109F0-C968-4DEA-9850-644C8EBEAA39 TRA-2.B.1 By definition, a Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor and a Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor. - 101AA6EF-441E-4656-A4F3-F7A64FE7AF30 TRA-1.B.3 Balanced molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic equations are differing symbolic forms used to represent a chemical reaction. The form used to represent the reaction depends on the context in which it is to be used. - 089A3B71-BD28-4280-A977-4214B50EDEC0 1.B Describe the components of and quantitative information from models and representations that illustrate both particulate-level and macroscopic-level properties. - 75819F6A-3EA5-47BA-AE90-43085674E72C TRA-3.B.4 The proportionality constant in the rate law is called the rate constant. The value of this constant is temperature dependent and the units reflect the overall reaction order. - 6D9BADD0-2A23-42F9-96CE-DB1B5FFB60FC SAP-5.B.2 Particulate-level representations, showing multiple interacting chemical species, are a useful means to communicate or understand how intermolecular interactions help to establish macroscopic properties. - 28E986B3-3853-454B-8DE5-E8B163C5B979 SAP-3.B.2 In a covalent bond, the bond length is influenced by both the size of the atom's core and the bond order (i.e., single, double, triple). Bonds with a higher order are shorter and have larger bond energies. - 6FB799EC-B675-4ED5-A7B5-A2557A6416F2 2.B Formulate a hypothesis or predict the results of an experiment. - EA4D401A-BEDB-4D24-ABCA-46926D937623 2.E Identify or describe potential sources of experimental error. - A5F01BB5-1E53-4AA5-A6DC-4AFE610F4608 TRA-6.A.3 The equilibrium state is dynamic. The forward and reverse processes continue to occur at equal rates, resulting in no net observable change. - 9D5F68D5-6B22-4685-80AC-B2721370261B TRA-2.A.3 In a redox reaction, electrons are transferred from the species that is oxidized to the species that is reduced. - 684896B3-E070-4CD3-B351-AABDD25A3555 ENE-4.C.2 The standard Gibbs free energy change for a chemical or physical process is a measure of thermodynamic favorability. Historically, the term "spontaneous" has been used to describe processes for which ΔG° < 0 . The phrase "thermodynamically favored" is preferred instead so that common misunderstandings (equating "spontaneous" with "suddenly" or "without cause") can be avoided. When ΔG° < 0 for the process, it is said to be thermodynamically favored. - 2FC013C0-11E7-4436-80CD-05CFA9D4EA57 ENE-3.A.1 During a chemical reaction, bonds are broken and/or formed, and these events change the potential energy of the system. - 1CCD15D9-5469-45FA-8472-8E8310D7FAB3 SPQ-5.A.1 The dissolution of a salt is a reversible process whose extent can be described by Kₛₚ, the solubility-product constant. - E77663D9-6CB4-437C-8CEC-541AFC4CC22C TRA-2.B.2 Only in aqueous solutions, water plays an important role in many acid-base reactions, as its molecular structure allows it to accept protons from and donate protons to dissolved species. - FB98679D-D88B-442A-9153-43E71CE6E5F5 SAP-9.E.1 An acid-base reaction can be carried out under controlled conditions in a titration. A titration curve, plotting pH against the volume of titrant added, is useful for summarizing results from a titration. - 0CB2B10F-4F35-4534-B1E2-4A11A7ED796E TRA-4.B.3 The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve describes the distribution of particle energies; this distribution can be used to gain a qualitative estimate of the fraction of collisions with sufficient energy to lead to a reaction, and also how that fraction depends on temperature. - DCB2EFCC-E432-4B35-B6A9-5978B930F211 ENE-4.A.2 Entropy increases when energy is dispersed. According to kinetic molecular theory (KMT), the distribution of kinetic energy among the particles of a gas broadens as the temperature increases. As a result, the entropy of the system increases with an increase in temperature. - B6EEC919-5B61-416C-BE66-8FA507B9CE8F ENE-6.C.2 Equilibrium arguments such as Le Châtelier's principle do not apply to electrochemical systems, because the systems are not in equilibrium. - 07657692-75AB-4150-806F-C7275F95E8B6 SAP-2.A.2 Trends in atomic properties within the periodic table (periodicity) can be qualitatively understood through the position of the element in the periodic table, Coulomb's law, the shell model, and the concept of shielding/effective nuclear charge. These properties include: - 09B1197B-0099-4584-9CCB-7339991466B2 ENE-3.A.2 The average energy required to break all of the bonds in the reactant molecules can be estimated by adding up the average bond energies of all the bonds in the reactant molecules. Likewise, the average energy released in forming the bonds in the product molecules can be estimated. If the energy released is greater than the energy required, the reaction is exothermic. If the energy required is greater than the energy released, the reaction is endothermic. - 213614E1-61B0-4227-919B-F2B71CF15E08 TRA-5.B.1 For reaction mechanisms in which each elementary step is irreversible, or in which the first step is rate limiting, the rate law of the reaction is set by the molecularity of the slowest elementary step (i.e., the rate-limiting step). - 0112DE98-4282-4B2E-ACFC-0798B87D2123 SAP-7.B.4 The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution provides a graphical representation of the energies/velocities of particles at a given temperature. - 58F3F627-0B9E-4D9A-B99F-4BAE382CDB44 6.E Provide reasoning to justify a claim using connections between particulate and macroscopic scales or levels. - 278FEAC9-FB50-4374-A005-F7187EE257C7 TRA-7.D.4 Since the expressions for K and Q have identical mathematical forms, all valid algebraic manipulations of K also apply to Q. - CA8C5ADC-44EF-49D3-90CE-F09B428E7FC4 SPQ-1.B.2 The average atomic mass of an element can be estimated from the weighted average of the isotopic masses using the mass of each isotope and its relative abundance. - D0766649-8FC6-4C7F-8239-151E18EE2033 SPQ-4.A.1 Because atoms must be conserved during a chemical process, it is possible to calculate product amounts by using known reactant amounts, or to calculate reactant amounts given known product amounts. - C22D9FCD-BEA5-4241-9BED-C0365CA1FC32 6.B Support a claim with evidence from experimental data. - 6E6A844A-6159-4B06-B353-BCB929922C3B TRA-6.B.1 If the rate of the forward reaction is greater than the reverse reaction, then there is a net conversion of reactants to products. If the rate of the reverse reaction is greater than that of the forward reaction, then there is a net conversion of products to reactants. An equilibrium state is reached when these rates are equal. - B9488904-00F7-48EE-BB4F-1802BB3A8D69 TRA-7.D.1 When a reaction is reversed, K is inverted. - 0484AD85-995B-4D9D-9DC7-E91A0F8EA153 ENE-6.B.1 Electrochemistry encompasses the study of redox reactions that occur within electrochemical cells. The reactions are either thermodynamically favored (resulting in a positive voltage) or thermodynamically unfavored (resulting in a negative voltage and requiring an externally applied potential for the reaction to proceed). - AAB44B8C-C8F2-4D98-9594-CFC72F6671AB 4.A Explain chemical properties or phenomena (e.g., of atoms or molecules) using given chemical theories, models, and representations. - 68A72CDE-0EEF-4BA8-83CD-FE463240B1B6 ENE-5.A.3 Connections between K and ΔG° can be made qualitatively through estimation. When ΔG° is near zero, the equilibrium constant will be close to 1. When ΔG° is much larger or much smaller than RT, the value of K deviates strongly from 1. - 776B421B-F656-43A1-89DF-B159E0634849 ENE-5.A.2 The equilibrium constant is related to free energy by the equations EQN: K = e [superscript −ΔG°/RT] and EQN: ΔG° = −RT ln K. - E5212494-B111-4C6E-8565-9B2825299E66 SAP-5.B.3 Due to strong interactions between ions, ionic solids tend to have low vapor pressures, high melting points, and high boiling points. They tend to be brittle due to the repulsion of like charges caused when one layer slides across another layer. They conduct electricity only when the ions are mobile, as when the ionic solid is melted or dissolved in water or another solvent. - 62A5254E-8350-4A46-8599-9CD69C71BB42 SAP-2.B.1 The likelihood that two elements will form a chemical bond is determined by the interactions between the valence electrons and nuclei of elements. - 247654CE-FB3A-4EFC-A2A5-9898D1666EC9 TRA-1.D.2 Sometimes physical processes involve the breaking of chemical bonds. For example, plausible arguments could be made for the dissolution of a salt in water, as either a physical or chemical process, involves breaking of ionic bonds, and the formation of ion-dipole interactions between ions and solvent. - 219FC221-6A68-4622-A956-C830AC4176F4 TRA-1.D.1 Processes that involve the breaking and/or formation of chemical bonds are typically classified as chemical processes. Processes that involve only changes in intermolecular interactions, such as phase changes, are typically classified as physical processes. - 149D9462-A990-4ED2-8056-6BC92DBFC349 SAP-2.B.2 Elements in the same column of the periodic table tend to form analogous compounds. - 3712E577-4E15-441E-81A5-EF27C73BAC20 SAP-4.A.1 Lewis diagrams can be constructed according to an established set of principles. - 68CE8B58-2AC4-4C36-A31C-DFDE6634D915 SPQ-3.C.2 Substances with similar intermolecular interactions tend to be miscible or soluble in one another. - 24E9632C-8D00-4DE6-B0E9-AA5ECF17207C 4.B Explain whether a model is consistent with chemical theories. - 0A10CE7F-2910-4E4F-97FC-B8BD3CE35E10 TRA-8.A.1 Le Châtelier's principle can be used to predict the response of a system to stresses such as addition or removal of a chemical species, change in temperature, change in volume/pressure of a gas-phase system, or dilution of a reaction system. - CB21C229-77C3-4C14-9D42-B94F1BC82D53 SAP-3.A.2 Valence electrons shared between atoms of similar electronegativity constitute a nonpolar covalent bond. For example, bonds between carbon and hydrogen are effectively nonpolar even though carbon is slightly more electronegative than hydrogen. - 57F88EFC-E893-4865-9E91-193E72909B8A SAP-2.B.3 Typical charges of atoms in ionic compounds are governed by their location on the periodic table and the number of valence electrons. - 5368A98D-969F-4671-8D3A-BFA92B23A4F7 ENE-2.A.3 When a chemical reaction occurs, the energy of the system either decreases (exothermic reaction), increases (endothermic reaction), or remains the same. For exothermic reactions, the energy lost by the reacting species (system) is gained by the surroundings, as heat transfer from or work done by the system. Likewise, for endothermic reactions, the system gains energy from the surroundings by heat transfer to or work done on the system. - 22D3FC99-F6C3-43ED-AC92-E4878ED844FB TRA-4.A.1 The rate law of an elementary reaction can be inferred from the stoichiometry of the molecules participating in a collision. - BD4CBF24-FF4B-487F-9475-3753AA8F05A9 SAP-9.C.5 The percent ionization of a weak acid (or base) can be calculated from its pKₐ (pK [subscript b]) and the initial concentration of the acid (base). - 55525B90-2A12-4913-8BD5-295E0103DC14 TRA-5.D.1 Knowledge of the energetics of each elementary reaction in a mechanism allows for the construction of an energy profile for a multistep reaction. - 0A8945F2-8797-4B00-A05A-9614DCBF0D57 ENE-5.A.4 Processes with ΔG° < 0 favor products (i.e., K > 1) and those with ΔG° > 0 favor reactants (i.e., K < 1). - 7FA3077C-78EB-4FC5-AE17-76F495458316 TRA-4.C.4 The Arrhenius equation relates the temperature dependence of the rate of an elementary reaction to the activation energy needed by molecular collisions to reach the transition state. - 7E0C1392-683C-4FBB-880D-40503284EF11 TRA-6.A.2 When equilibrium is reached, no observable changes occur in the system. Reactants and products are simultaneously present, and the concentrations or partial pressures of all species remain constant. - 41EF44BF-C093-4CC7-AAA3-8BC61AB0A6DD TRA-7.D.3 When reactions are added together, the K of the resulting overall reaction is the product of the K's for the reactions that were summed. - 4A40BD7B-027E-47B9-8A0F-BFBE78AAE8E8 TRA-3.C.4 The slopes of the concentration versus time data for zeroth, first, and second order reactions can be used to determine the rate constant for the reaction. - 0ACEAFC7-186F-4761-88D0-5AFF8A5D16C2 SPQ-5.A.2 The solubility of a substance can be calculated from the Kₛₚ for the dissolution process. This relationship can also be used to predict the relative solubility of different substances. - A89F27C8-559F-44FF-9086-2330D6BEE9B9 ENE-6.C.3 The standard cell potential E° corresponds to the standard conditions of Q = 1. As the system approaches equilibrium, the magnitude (i.e., absolute value) of the cell potential decreases, reaching zero at equilibrium (when Q = K). Deviations from standard conditions that take the cell further from equilibrium than Q = 1 will increase the magnitude of the cell potential relative to E°. Deviations from standard conditions that take the cell closer to equilibrium than Q = 1 will decrease the magnitude of the cell potential relative to E°. 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Education Catalog: GUID Identifier: a58b09cb-9619-49de-8706-d02d9e925df1 AP Core: Chemistry General Course Resources IMPORTANT COURSE INFORMATION Intended Role: teacher AP Chemistry Correlation Intended Role: teacher AP Chemistry Correlation by Chapter Intended Role: teacher Focus Review Guide Answer Key Intended Role: teacher eBook publisher: McGraw-Hill Education 2020 Intended Role: student SmartBook Intended Role: student Teacher Manual Intended Role: teacher Chapter: 1: Chemistry: The Study of Change Student Resources eBook Chapter 1 publisher: McGraw-Hill Education 2020 Intended Role: student SmartBook Chapter 1 Intended Role: teacher Chapter Assignments PowerPoint Presentation Intended Role: teacher Inquiry Activity: Classifying Chemical and Physical Processes Intended Role: teacher Lab Activity: Determine Density Intended Role: teacher Teacher Resources AP Teacher Manual Intended Role: teacher Instructors Solution Manual Intended Role: teacher Inquiry Activity: Classifying Chemical and Physical Processes Teacher Guide Intended Role: teacher Lab Activity: Determine Density Teacher Guide Intended Role: teacher Illustrative Art Intended Role: teacher Chapter: 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Student Resources